What is Democracy and How Can a Nation Get There?
The word democracy derives from the Greek words demos (“people”) and kratia (“rule”). It is an ideal of government that has become more widely accepted in the world than at any time before. Today it is embraced by the majority of states in the world. But what does it mean to be a democracy, and how can a nation get there? Democratisation, the process of changing to a democratic political regime, involves the gradual movement of substantive social changes in the direction of democracy. This is in contrast to authoritarianism, where social change occurs more rapidly but does not necessarily move towards a democratic regime. The concept of democratisation has been around for centuries, and many theories of the causes and processes of it have emerged. These have influenced the development of modern political science and, in particular, helped to shape the field of study known as Transitions Studies. However, the development of a comprehensive theory of democratisation is still in progress. Some of the current theories focus on identifying and proposing necessary conditions for democratisation. Others are more dynamic and seek to understand the nature of a democratisation process. Still others are more concerned with the strategic interactions of democratic forces in a society and the implications of these for the rate, sequence and path of democratisation. While some of these models are very insightful, they do not offer a unifying framework for the analysis of democratisation. The next round of research and theory on the subject must shift away from these descriptive models and toward understanding a set of causal mechanisms that produce and sustain democratic development. This involves a more systematic approach to the democratisation process, and a recognition that it is not just a process of implementing specific democratic institutions but of establishing a new kind of social order characterized by pluralist public politics, categorical inequality and networks of trust that bind citizens together. The success of a democratisation process depends on its ability to satisfy these demands, as well as on the capacity of state actors to implement these arrangements in a timely and effective manner. A key to democratisation is the emergence of public policies that address the needs of all groups, especially the poor. For example, education plays an important role in promoting democracy, because it leads to a natural expansion of programs that benefit the poor and stimulates the adoption of legal rules that are focused on this population. It also enables people with different levels of education to contribute in similar ways to civil societies, including voting and other forms of political participation. Unfortunately, such policies do not always live up to the rhetoric in which they are presented. In some cases, they can even undermine the societal changes that are conducive to democratisation. For example, when Iran’s pro-western Shah began to introduce civil society programs in the 1970s as part of a move towards democratisation, he ran into serious conflict with other entrenched and countervailing forces in the country.
Read MoreThe Importance of Culture
A healthy culture ties all the individual aspects of a person’s life together. It gives them a sense of belonging and a feeling of truth and authenticity. It also helps them feel nurtured and even loved. However, there are a number of nuances to this concept that many people fail to understand. They often tend to focus on things that are visible, ignoring the vast majority of cultural elements that are hidden from view. They also may treat cultural artifacts like any other material goods, failing to recognize that they are imbued with deeper values and meaning that transcend the concept of property and cannot be transposed into legal terms. Cultural is defined as a system of beliefs, norms, rules, morals, and attitudes that characterize a group or society. It includes values and traditions that are learned by observation and imitation, and passed down from generation to generation. It can include everything from a group’s religion to the way they raise their children, the types of food they eat, and the traditions they celebrate. The study of culture has its roots in sociology and the humanities. For sociologist Georg Simmel, culture is the external forms that shape and organize human behavior. It includes values, beliefs, norms, and attitudes that a group or society shares, as well as the symbols and artifacts they produce. It can be either non-material or material, with the former referring to the ideas that a culture holds and the latter referring to the physical objects that it produces. Most modern scholars of culture draw heavily from the work of anthropologists and historians, but they also consider the work of sociologists and political scientists. The Italian marxist Antonio Gramsci, for example, pushed the theory of culture to a new level by emphasizing the power that ideas can have over people, even when they are not directly observed or experienced. Other marxist theorists, such as Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, went further by proposing that a culture of ideas can neutralize resistance and allow social elites to dominate populations through consent. Other scholars of culture emphasize the importance of language in shaping a culture and creating a consciousness. They take the approach that Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure developed early in the twentieth century, in which words are not assigned their meaning in isolation from each other but rather in relation to the whole system of signification they form part of. This is sometimes referred to as semiotics, and it has helped to explain how concepts such as “white” or “black,” “male” or “female,” and other cultural categories can slide easily into each other. This process is known as cultural hegemony.
Read MoreWhat Is Democracy?
Democracy is a system of government that gives its citizens an equal say in the decisions that affect them. It can be hard to define, but in general people think of it as a form of government where the power comes from the people through elected representatives. People participate in a democracy by voting, protesting and running for office, among other things. The term derives from two Greek words, demos, meaning “citizens” and kratos, meaning “rule.” Democracy is a universally valued political ideal; its value is recognized in the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. Democracy matters because it is a uniquely public egalitarian way of making collective decisions when there is persistent disagreement and conflict of interests over how to shape the society we all share. It also provides the necessary conditions for realizing human rights. Many people see democracy as a crucial component of their well-being, as indicated by surveys and polls in which citizens rate the quality of their lives and of their country’s democracy. But not all are convinced that the current form of democracy is working as well as it should, or that it can be made to work better. One common argument is that democracy produces better laws and policies than alternative methods of decision-making because it is more likely to produce the right result by considering all relevant facts and arguments. This is called the instrumental justification of democracy. A related argument is that democracy enhances the character of citizens, as demonstrated by the fact that it encourages people to stand up for their own interests and to take part in the democratic process because they have a stake in the outcome. Another argument is that democracy makes people more morally responsible because it forces them to take the views of others seriously and to try to understand and accommodate their differences. The same argument is used to justify democracy as a means of protecting individual rights and freedoms. A third argument is that democracy creates a more equal distribution of wealth and opportunity, because it encourages individuals to seek out opportunities for self-betterment, invest in the future and develop skills. This, in turn, benefits the economy and the overall well-being of a nation. There is much room for debate about how best to define and measure democracy, but what is clear is that democracy has become a vital global idea. Its importance is reflected in the fact that the Sustainable Development Goals – adopted by all countries in 2015 – include the goal of advancing “democracy, good governance and the rule of law at the local and national levels.” The future of democracy will be determined by the extent to which these goals are realized and by the degree to which we continue to support it as a principle and as a practice.
Read MoreHow to Promote Your Products in the Global Market
The global market is the fundamental tool for the financial growth of companies and nations. This is because it establishes the ideal scenario for two or more territories to do business with each other, thereby increasing the amount of money that is exchanged. However, the international market is full of a series of rules that should be followed in order to avoid any conflict between countries or companies. The most important thing to keep in mind is that, in the end, both parties must benefit from this market. The main objective of a company that promotes products in the global market is to reach a greater number of potential consumers, which increases the brand’s reputation and its competitive advantage. Additionally, it offers many other benefits to the company such as reducing costs and creating more job opportunities. However, it’s important to remember that not all businesses will be successful in the international market. Therefore, the first step in promoting products in the global market is to do a thorough research on the country where the product will be sold. It’s vital to know what the requirements are, the procedures to be followed and the taxes that apply to businesses of your type in that particular country. Besides, it is essential to study the cultural differences and privileged consumer behavior types of each country. In this way, you can adapt your promotion campaigns to the needs of each group of consumers. For example, a restaurant that wants to open in India must replace meat with vegetable cutlets in all of its hamburgers to meet the national food traditions. Another benefit of entering the global marketplace is that it provides a company with access to different technologies and innovation norms, as well as better equipment processes, at cheaper prices than they would cost in their home country. Additionally, labor and living costs in other countries can be much lower than in the company’s home country, reducing overall staffing expenses. Moreover, when a company enters the global marketplace it also diversifies its risk. This can help it withstand economic uncertainty in certain markets, since success in other areas can offset losses. Additionally, the broader talent pool offered by international expansion makes it easier to find and hire employees with diverse skills sets and backgrounds. Nevertheless, the differences that persist throughout the world despite our current trend toward globalization affirm an ancient dictum: what counts in commercial affairs is what happens at the margin, not in their core. The fact that cars with left-side drives are exported from Japan to the United States and Europe, that a company sells office machines in its own stores or through distributors abroad, that it speaks Spanish in Mexico, or that people shop at Safeway and Southland outside the United States, is not enough to make a company global. Only what it produces and sells matters globally. And that is the challenge that the modern corporation must face.
Read MoreWhat Is Politics?
Politics is a broad term that refers to the ways in which people try to shape public decisions and policies. People who study politics learn to analyze the way governments, politicians and internal political systems work and how people interact with each other within these structures. They also gain a range of skills that they can use to make changes in society, whether as a politician or as a citizen who wants to make an impact. One of the simplest definitions of politics is that it concerns the state, which encompasses the permanent institutions that provide public services, enforce laws, ensure security and govern people and things. The state is headed by politicians who are temporarily elected to run it, and the politicians determine what the public services should be, what laws should be made, how security should be provided, and what purposes the state should serve. Another way to think about politics is that it involves the authoritative and legitimate struggle for limited resources or precious rights and privileges. This is true in the context of government, but it is also the case at the level of society as a whole. Politics is a process of manoeuvring to assert rival interests, and it is often messy and violent. It is sometimes possible to achieve a reasonable solution that satisfies all, but more often the solutions grossly favor one set of interests over another. In democratic societies, citizens vote to elect officials based on their ideas about how the state should function. Those officials then make decisions for the state, based on their manifestos that they outline during campaigns. The number of elected officials depends on the size of the country, but in most countries there are too many residents to have a single central government, so they adopt a federal system of splitting power between a national government and local city or regional governments that are connected to each other through the national government. In addition to making domestic policy, politicians also interact with other governments on the international stage. They may go to war with each other, but more typically they negotiate with each other through international or regional organisations. The rise of globalisation in the 20th century has enabled these interactions to take on an increasing scale, with more and more parts of the world becoming part of a common political space. These developments are an important consideration for those who study politics, as they change the context in which political decision making takes place. As the old saying goes, “If you can’t stand the heat, stay out of the kitchen.” Plato and Aristotle
Read MoreWhat Is Democratisation?
Democratisation refers to processes by which societies move from authoritarianism to minimal democracy or even substantive democracy. Such processes have never been linear or free from hazards, and the emergence of a genuinely democratic system can require several decades. It is generally agreed that a basic precondition for democratisation is the existence of civil society organisations able to promote democratic values, ideas and behaviours and to challenge state power. A further precondition is the existence of political and cultural changes that make it possible for a majority of citizens to grasp and accept democratic values and practices as non-threatening, compatible with their traditional referents of identity and beliefs about what constitutes the ‘common good’. Without such favourable civil-society and cultural conditions, any effort to promote democratisation within a society may produce only a form of manipulable procedural democracy. These are not easy conditions to create, and attempts to force them to happen by external pressure or by domestically promoted revolution have rarely succeeded. Most regimes that have been forced to promote democratisation have done so on a selective, exclusive and largely procedural basis, and have frequently reverted to different forms of authoritarian rule once the pressure was removed. It has also been widely believed that economic development, with its concomitant high levels of literacy and education, is another necessary condition for democratisation. In particular, a number of studies have found that primary and secondary education are powerful determinants of democratisation. But recent studies have questioned these findings. For example, Keller (2006) finds that the effects of education on voting and other democratisation measures are diminished when income is controlled for, so the impact on democratisation is much smaller than previously reported. And while higher education is associated with greater democratisation, this effect is diminished when the level of education is adjusted for socioeconomic status (see table below). Other studies have suggested that a variety of other factors are important. Some have focused on the role of war, in particular the link between war and democratisation. Others have looked at the importance of investment in education and training, with OECD studies showing that those who invest in secondary and higher education have a larger democracy index than those who do not. But in general, the evidence on these variables is weak and contested. What is clear, however, is that analysts of democratisation need to shift their gaze from analysing necessary and sufficient conditions to examining the many causal sequences involved in transformations from autocracy to democracy. Those who study social change should focus more on identifying and tracking the many democracy-promoting mechanisms that activate incrementally, in three arenas – public politics, inequality and networks of trust – to produce a democratising effect. And they should endeavour to invent devices that will activate these mechanisms less brutally than conquest, confrontation, colonisation and revolution have done in the past. This will be challenging but it is necessary. A full understanding of these causal sequences will ultimately help to inform the development of a better theory of what a democratising process actually is.
Read MoreWhat is Culture?
Culture is a priceless part of human life, something that cannot be assigned monetary value or explained with cold logic. It consists of shared language, ideas, beliefs, pastimes, customs and traditions that make it possible for people to identify with others who have similar traits and values. In this sense, it differs from race, ethnicity and religion, though it may overlap with them in some instances. It is also sometimes used to distinguish members of self-organizing groups from other human beings. The term is a slippery concept, and definitions vary widely. Some anthropologists and sociologists use it to refer to the particular behaviours of a particular group, such as Hasidic Jewish culture or Italian culture, while others, like the historian Rein Raud, apply it more broadly to all socially constructed aspects of life that are distinctive to humans, including the tools they use (such as stone axes), the way they organize themselves into a community, the ways they work together, and the values they hold. He also includes cultural memory as an essential component of culture. A resurgence of interest in cultural history has developed, which seeks to examine the meaning and significance of past culture in its broadest possible sense. It seeks to re-link the study of culture with a tradition of historical study, and explores a wide range of topics, from parades in 19th-century America to 16th-century Spanish texts, from English medical writing to the visual practices implied by Italian Renaissance frescoes. It draws on a variety of theoretical touchstones, including Jurgen Habermas’s formulation of the public sphere and Clifford Geertz’s notion of a “thick description” of cultures. An important theme in the debate over culture is whether it can be defined and described, and if so, how. Some anthropologists and sociologists take a fundamentalist view, which treats certain key characteristics as the definition of a culture, and assumes that all its members share those traits. This is rejected by many historians. Cultures are means to an end – security and continuity of existence – and some cultures do a better job of this than others. For example, some cultures provide a more secure food supply than others through agriculture, and other cultural features, such as the veneration of the dead or the practice of a specific sport, help to prevent the spread of disease. Some cultures are also more effective at coping with disasters. This is reflected in the mortality rates of different societies.
Read MoreDemocracies Around the World
The word “democracy” combines the Greek words demos (“people”) and kratia (“rule”). It is government by the people, or in other words, a system of rule based on popular sovereignty. It is a concept that is central to the international political order and a goal of many international organisations, including the UN, the World Bank, the IMF and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). However, in recent years there have been growing concerns about the state of democracy around the world, with organisations such as Freedom House, The Economist Intelligence Unit and V-Dem documenting declines in democratic quality across different parts of the globe. The reason for these concerns is complex. Amongst other things, dissatisfaction with the economy, distrust of politicians and concern about immigration have all contributed to rising tensions in some countries. At the same time, many of the institutions that make democracy work, such as free media and independent judiciaries, have been under increasing pressure from powerful interests. Despite these challenges, it is worth remembering that, on average, people are fairly satisfied with democracy. In most nations, more than six-in-ten people say that they are at least somewhat satisfied with the way their democracy works. But satisfaction varies widely between nations. Some, such as Sweden and Hungary, have high levels of satisfaction; others, such as Italy and Greece, do not. It is also important to recall that, when people are asked whether they want their country to be a democracy, most answer yes. This is not surprising, as democracy offers a number of benefits. In particular, it allows citizens to have a say in the decisions that affect them. It means that they can challenge government policy and hold their representatives to account. It also allows citizens to form and join groups to take up issues that they are concerned about, or to protest against policies or decisions that they disagree with. This is vital if diverse views are to be taken into account in making decisions and it is an essential part of what makes democracy worthwhile. Many theorists argue that we can justify democracy along two dimensions: instrumentally, by reference to the outcomes of having it compared with alternatives; and intrinsically, because there is a moral right to democracy that goes beyond the fact that it is a practical means of political decision making. Various arguments have been used to support this latter position, from utilitarian considerations to considerations of a more ethical nature. Nevertheless, it is clear that the status of democracy is currently under threat and that more needs to be done to protect it. This is true not only for the sake of the well-being of individuals, but also for that of the global economy and the sustainable future of the planet. As such, it is in the self-interest of all to do what we can to strengthen democracy. This article is based on the original version published by The Loop in June 2017.
Read MoreThe Global Market and Why You Need to Globalize Your Market Research
The Global Market refers to an international business environment in which the world’s economies are connected, and companies trade goods and services across international borders. The global marketplace is the economic engine that drives businesses and nations. Global markets connect the world economy and provide a variety of benefits to companies, including lower business costs, access to new technologies and markets, and more. Global marketing is the process of growing a company’s sales and revenue through promoting products or services to consumers located outside its home country or territory. This requires a deep understanding of the unique cultural differences, customer needs, and potential competitive advantage for each international market. Global marketing is an essential part of any growth strategy for a company that wants to expand its market share and profits worldwide. A company’s success in its domestic market often inspires it to consider expanding into foreign countries and territories. Global marketing can help a company reach a wider audience, increase sales and revenue, and grow its brand influence worldwide. It can also help a company thrive during periods of economic uncertainty by diversifying its risk and providing greater stability for the enterprise. While global market research can be challenging, it’s a critical component to your business’s growth strategy. Global market research can be much different than the traditional market research process, so it’s important to understand these nuances before launching into an unfamiliar market. In this article, we’ll dive into the reasons why you need to globalize your market research, what challenges may arise, and how to overcome them. The world’s two great vectors are technology and globalization. The first helps determine human preferences, the second shapes them into a global market for products and services that are both high-quality and standardized. While these vectors will still shift and diverge, they are advancing rapidly toward convergence. Companies that do not adapt to these changes will become victims of those that do. In addition to the benefits mentioned above, globalization can allow a company to take advantage of lower living and labor costs abroad, which reduces long-term operating expenses. It can also help companies harness innovative solutions from the global marketplace, and take advantage of tax incentives and other benefits that aren’t available locally. It’s important to note that the globalization of a company’s marketing efforts should be an ongoing effort, as consumer tastes and preferences change over time. A company should be constantly looking to localize its marketing efforts and ensure it’s communicating effectively with its customers in each new market. This will continue to be important as the world becomes increasingly interconnected and diverse. Taking the time to properly implement this strategy will ensure that your company is prepared for all future market conditions. This is particularly important for companies that produce or sell products with universal demand, like food and energy. By staying localized in its approach to marketing, these companies can ensure that they are able to remain relevant and profitable for years to come.
Read MoreWhat Is Politics?
Politics is the process by which people decide how their country or state should be governed. This involves a conflict of interests, where different groups want or need things but are limited in resources or access to privileges and rights. Politics can involve a peaceful negotiation of these competing interests or can erupt into violence. It’s also important to note that politics is not just about government; the term can be applied to any type of group decision making – such as workgroups, churches or even family circles. The field of study that studies political decisions and their impact is called political science. It’s a classic discipline that dates back to ancient Greece and Rome, with philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle writing about the concepts of justice, fairness and power. Today, politicians are often accused of being corrupt and crooked but that doesn’t mean they are inherently bad. Many have a lot to offer their constituents, from their unique knowledge and experiences to their ability to connect with them on a personal level. This is why a good politician can be so beneficial to their community. The key is to know how to play the game, which requires a keen understanding of its rules. It’s through politics that countries continue to operate, key policies are implemented and global challenges are addressed. Whether it’s through a democratic, federal, communist or dictatorship approach, every country has its own distinct political system, which is shaped by its culture, history and geography. Typically, elected officials are chosen by winning a plurality of votes cast at the local, district and state levels. In the United States, voters select candidates to represent them in the Senate and House of Representatives using a popular vote and the President is chosen through an electoral college system. Political parties are a fundamental aspect of any political system and they bring together individuals with similar beliefs in order to have a chance at winning an election. Historically, the two main political parties in the United States have been the Democratic Party and the Republican Party; each has its own ideology and policies that it supports and opposes. A politician’s job is to fight for the opportunity to lead their constituents by gaining a seat in government and then enacting the policies they’ve promised. In many cases, a politician will need to appeal to the public’s interest through a media campaign in order to gain support and get their message out there. If political institutions are unable to effectively utilize politics to bring about a peaceful resolution between divergent interests, those institutions will get close to breaking down. When this happens, it can lead to violent protests and riots in the form of war. This is why it’s important for everyone to become politically involved and to take a stand on the issues they care about.
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