Category: Blog

What Is Culture?

Cultural is a broad term with many interpretations, but there is considerable agreement that it encompasses all of the aspects of life of a group of people — including art, beliefs, language, lifestyle, food, values and traditions. The concept of culture is a central part of the philosophy of anthropology and the fields of sociology, history, and religion, as well as many other social sciences. For example, UNESCO defines culture as “the distinctive spiritual, material and intellectual characteristics of a society or a group, such as arts, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs.” While it is often assumed that cultures are unique and fixed, the truth is that no culture is static; all cultures are constantly evolving. The study of the evolution of a particular culture is called cultural history. It is a branch of the wider discipline of history that has emerged from dissatisfaction with the limitations of earlier approaches to understanding the past, such as structuralism and post-structuralist critiques. Cultural historians focus on everyday life and continuities rather than ruptures, and are concerned with how different spheres of human activity — such as politics, economics, kinship, gender and religion — intersect and interact. This approach to history has been controversial, in large part because of a specific objection that it is essentialist. An essentialist account of a culture treats certain key practices and norms as defining it, and argues that all members of the culture share those traits in equal measure. Critics of this view argue that it is not only impossible to define what constitutes a culture in this way, but that it is also undesirable to treat some cultures as ‘essential’, since the differences between them can be profound. Another major criticism of this view is that it places too much emphasis on the activities deemed to be ‘high culture’ and neglects other aspects of a culture, such as the everyday lives of its members, their beliefs and behaviours, and their communities. In addition, this form of historical analysis tends to exclude women, minorities and the poor, whose contributions to a culture are less visible but no less important. Despite the wide-ranging opinions on what exactly culture is, there is broad agreement that it matters to people, and that its importance is one of the reasons it should be protected in legal and political spaces. The defenders of this view argue that, even though it is difficult to defend the notion of a ‘culture’ in its fullest form, it is still possible to protect the elements of a culture that are valuable to individuals, such as ensuring that forums for negotiating and sharing these values are sustained in robust and inclusive ways.

The Arguments For and Against Democracy

Democracy is a form of government by the people where everyone has an equal say and rights. It was first practiced in ancient Athens where all citizens could meet to debate and vote on issues. The word comes from the Greek demos (people) and kratos (rule). It is often interpreted as a form of government that gives people control over their own lives by letting them elect representatives to represent them in parliament, but the concept goes far beyond that. It also includes freedom of thought, conscience and religion – which is not something that can be taken away from anyone, even by their elected representatives. A democracy must allow for pluralism of ideas, a diversity that may challenge the current system, but which is vital to the health of a society. In recent years, growing anger at political elites, economic dissatisfaction and anxiety about rapid social change have fueled upheaval in regions around the world. This has led to the rise of anti-establishment leaders, parties and movements, as well as protests and grassroots initiatives that call for the expansion or reform of existing democratic institutions. Organizations from the Economist Intelligence Unit to V-Dem have documented global declines in democracy’s health and have raised concerns about the future of liberal democracy. The most common argument in favor of democracy is that it is more likely to protect individuals’ rights and interests than other forms of government. For example, John Stuart Mill argued that because democracy gives citizens a share of power in political decision-making, it makes them stand up for themselves more than they would under a monarchy or aristocracy. Other advocates of democracy claim that, by giving citizens a voice in political decision making, it cultivates their active characters and encourages them to become more independent. A second line of argument in favor of democracy argues that it is the best form of government for solving complex problems. In particular, it is better able to exploit the underlying cognitive diversity of large groups of people than other forms of government. For example, Helene Landemore has cited the “diversity trumps ability” theorem of Scott Page and Lu Hong—that a random selection of agents from a set with limited abilities typically outperforms a group of experts—to argue that democracy is superior to other forms of government (Brennan 2013). A third line of argument in favor of democracy claims that it is morally desirable regardless of its consequences. Specifically, it is desirable that everyone be empowered to make decisions about their own lives and the lives of those closest to them. It is this view that led to the universal declaration of human rights, which guarantees certain fundamental freedoms, including the right to vote and to hold public office.

Simplifying Global Market Expansion

Global Market is the worldwide marketplace reconciling or taking advantage of operational differences and opportunities. Global companies seek sales opportunities in similar markets around the world to achieve economies of scale, which reduces production and shipping costs. Companies rely on marketing to convey product benefits to potential consumers, which helps them generate revenue and profits. Using local language and cultural contexts, global marketers tailor marketing messages to meet regional demands and improve brand awareness. In addition, companies often seek out local partners to help them reach their target audience. For example, a company may partner with a translation service to translate their website into different languages. A global market offers many advantages to businesses, including cost savings and a broader talent pool. However, conducting business in a foreign market brings along several logistical challenges and compliance risks. For example, companies must provide payroll, benefits, and ongoing HR support to employees in multiple countries. They also must comply with employment and tax laws in multiple regions. Read on to learn how businesses can simplify global expansion and mitigate the associated risk. In the early days of globalization, it was important for a multinational corporation to offer products that were as similar as possible to what customers in each country wanted. This approach fueled the development of international trade agreements, which were meant to ensure that companies offered consistent products in the markets they served. Now that world economies have become more interconnected, there is less need for global companies to offer products based on local market requirements. Instead, successful global corporations have come to recognize that people around the world are more interested in highly standardized world products than they were in what their parents thought was suitable, what immemorial custom decreed was proper or what market-research fabulists claimed was preferred. Despite the need for more standardization, it is still essential for large multinationals to understand and accommodate cultural differences in order to be successful in different markets. The best way to do this is to research these markets thoroughly, which can be a challenging and time-consuming task. Companies that fail to do this may miss out on lucrative opportunities. In addition, expanding into a new market can teach a company about the business practices and customer preferences of that region. This can provide valuable information that can be used in future marketing campaigns. A specialized PEO can help businesses navigate the complex global market and mitigate the associated risks. The experts at a PEO can also help businesses manage human resource management functions for employees in multiple locations, such as payroll, benefits, and ongoing HR support. They can also advise on the best compliance and tax strategies for different regions. This can help companies avoid costly mistakes and remain competitive in the global market. By reducing their operating expenses, they can improve their bottom line and increase profit.

Why Study Politics?

Politics is a vast and exciting subject that influences the everyday lives of billions of people across the world. From the services they receive, to the laws that govern them and the buildings that provide shelter, it is politics that ensures our societies function properly and smoothly, while also ensuring that we remain safe and free. Studying politics will leave you with a wealth of skills that will help you to succeed in many different areas, whether this is within the political sphere or in other aspects of your life. In the most broad sense, Politics is about how governments work – whether they be democratic, communist or dictatorial. It also includes the ways that these government’s interact with each other through the international sphere, in terms of the agreements they make and the actions they take. Often, a government will be composed of political parties, which are groups of people who work together to put forward their ideas for how a country should be run. There is often some disagreement between the parties, but they work together because they believe that their views will be more powerful if they are combined. The people in a country then vote to decide who should be in the government and they can choose between different parties. The study of Politics will also look at how these parties, governments and the international sphere works, and it will try to explain why certain things happen and how we can make improvements. This is important because if we don’t understand the way that governments and political systems work, we can’t change them to make them more effective. As a subject, Politics is one of the most interesting and varied that you can study. Unlike subjects like maths, which are more rigid and set in their methods, Politics is highly creative and allows you to think outside the box and come up with unique and innovative solutions to problems. This is why studying it can be so rewarding, especially if you enjoy debating and have an opinion on most subjects! There are many reasons why you might want to learn about Politics, from wanting to become a politician yourself, to simply being interested in how societies function and the laws that govern them. It is a complex, exciting and fascinating subject that can be studied at all levels of education. Many schools will teach the basics of politics in GCSE and A-Level, but it’s also a great subject to study at university level. In fact, it’s not uncommon for students to go into tens of thousands of pounds worth of debt just to study Politics at a university. This is because it is a really challenging, but very rewarding subject to study and it has many transferable skills that can be used in other areas of life too. So, if you’re thinking about studying it, then be sure to do your research! The more you know about this hugely interesting topic, the better equipped you will be to make your own opinions and decisions.

What Is Democratisation?

Democratisation is the process by which a country makes the transition to a democracy. This process is often seen as a long and difficult one, and there is much debate as to whether democracy is really worth the effort that it demands. There is also much disagreement about the conditions that are necessary for a society to become democratic. Many academics believe that a democratic political culture is necessary for the success of a democracy, and this is usually defined as a collection of attitudes and values including tolerance for diversity, the belief that other citizens are basically trustworthy, the willingness to compromise, and a respect for freedom and equality. This civic culture is also thought to require a commitment to public welfare. Other scholars argue that a democracy is only possible if the majority of citizens accept democratic ideas, principles and practices as part of their cultural identity. These must be able to co-exist with traditional cultural referents and beliefs about the good life. This is a particularly challenging task where religious or tribal traditions are in play. For example, when the pro-western Shah of Iran embarked on processes of civil-society expansion in the 1970s as part of a democratisation strategy, he ran into serious opposition from the Iranian middle classes who had no desire to abandon their traditional culture and religion. In addition to the underlying cultural factors, many academics believe that a democracy requires some level of economic development and high levels of literacy and education. This is because a well-educated population is better able to understand the issues involved in a democracy and to participate actively in government. It is also more likely to support a democracy that provides a fair distribution of wealth and opportunities for all. In this context, the Arab Spring of 2011 demonstrated a new willingness of young people to take to the streets and demonstrate their discontent with what they saw as an unjust and corrupt regime. Finally, it is important that a democracy be participatory, and this is why some academics emphasise the importance of a wide range of ways for citizens to engage with politics and their government. Obviously, the most obvious way is to vote, but there are other ways, such as by writing to a newspaper or attending a demonstration. In addition, a democracy needs citizens to contribute – either through taxes or in the form of volunteering for community organisations. Although there have been a few examples of foreign-induced democratisation, most analysts agree that sustainable pro-democratic civil-society changes must precede a successful transition to procedural or working democracy. This is why the experience of Afghanistan and Iraq demonstrates that democratisation instigated from outside stands little chance of succeeding.

The Definition of Culture

Culture is the totality of a people’s learned behavior, beliefs and attitudes that distinguish them from other people. It includes art, customs, language, laws, morals and rules, beliefs, and values that are shared by a particular group of people. It is defined as the system of human behavior that is distinguished from subhuman animal behavior by the fact that it is learned rather than innate, that it is socially transmitted, and that it has its origin in man’s sense of history, which distinguishes culture from barbarism. The term “culture” is sometimes used interchangeably with the terms civilization and civility, although these concepts differ. Civilization is a neologism of the eighteenth century, coined by Voltaire to contrast with barbarism and designate the highest level of human cultural achievement. The concept of culture is so pervasive that it has become the focus of a wide range of academic disciplines, from sociology and anthropology to psychology and law. It has also become the subject of heated debate, with a number of people arguing that it is an unchanging, immutable, universal phenomenon and others claiming that cultures vary greatly and change over time. A central issue in the debate is whether or not culture can be defined empirically, as a set of behavioral characteristics that can be identified and measured. Some scholars have attempted to do so, with varying degrees of success. The key challenge is to avoid essentialist accounts of culture, in which certain key traits are viewed as defining culture and must be present for a people to be considered a member of that culture. This issue has led to a proliferation of definitions, each with its own sets of assumptions and biases. Some of these are more logically consistent than others, and some are more useful in specific contexts than others. Nevertheless, it is important to keep in mind that there are no definitive, objectively valid definitions of culture and that any such definition must be treated as provisional. The following definition of culture is taken from the book, People are Culture: A Conversation About the Meaning and Value of Culture, published by the World Crafts Council in 2006. It is a dialogic debate between the authors, 16 people from around the world who have spent their careers working in the realm of culture. These individuals represent the fields of anthropology; visual arts; education; history; crafts; literature; horticulture; social entrepreneurship; and museum management. In this dialogue, each author offers a unique perspective on the concept of culture based on their own experiences and the knowledge that they have gained throughout their careers. It is from these diversified backgrounds that we hope to gain a rich understanding of this ever-changing concept of culture. We have invited each of them to share their thoughts with us and we are pleased to present them here. They are all experts in their own right and we thank them for contributing to this discussion! Please click on the name of each individual to read their full comments.

The Values That Underpin Democracy

Democracy is a political system in which the members of a society make decisions for that society, including the laws and policies that govern it. It also involves them in choosing and electing representatives to make those decisions for them. There are different ways in which societies may be democratic, so it is important for citizens to know the values underpinning their country’s version of democracy. The most common way that people participate in a democracy is by voting, but there are many other ways they can engage in politics and government. The more people that participate in these other ways, the better a democracy will work. It is vital that young people get involved in their local communities early, so they can become familiar with the specific issues facing them and how they can address them. This can begin by joining environmental groups or other protest organisations fighting against war, corporate exploitation, or child labour. Educators can help their students develop an understanding of democracy by asking them to identify the values that they think are most important in the way they live their lives, interact with each other, and govern themselves. This will give them a “custom-made” set of aspirations and values that they can compare to the form of governance that their country currently has in place and judge whether it is a democracy or not. A second important value that underpins democracy is equality. This is the idea that all members of a society are equal, regardless of wealth or social status. In order for this to be true, it must mean that everyone is treated equally by the state and its institutions, and that laws are fair and clearly written. It also means that everyone has the right to free speech and association, and that opposing views are tolerated and respected. Another key underpinning of democracy is the idea that it is better for society if decisions are made by those who are most affected by those decisions. This is often referred to as the “cognitive diversity” justification for democracy, and it was first put forward by Aristotle (Politics, Book II, Chapter 11). It is based on the fact that decision-makers in a democracy are more likely than those in other forms of government to be aware of all of the relevant facts about the interests of a large group of citizens. Finally, a third justification for democracy is that it is morally desirable. In particular, it is believed that a democracy will advance the rights and interests of those who are not well represented in other political systems. For example, John Stuart Mill argues that, because democracy gives each subject some share of the power to determine the laws of the association in which they are a member, this will ensure that the interests of less powerful subjects are taken into account more effectively than they would be in an aristocracy or monarchy (Mill 1861: ch. 3).

Expanding Into the Global Market

The global market is a world-wide network of buyers and sellers, considered to be independent of national boundaries. The term may also be used to refer to the worldwide marketplace for a specific commodity product or currency, as in “the global market for oil”. In its broadest sense, the global market encompasses all buyers and sellers in the world economy, regardless of where they reside. Those who operate in the global marketplace benefit from a range of advantages, including access to new target customers and increased profits. As technology advances and the economy of the world becomes more integrated, businesses that seek growth are seeking to tap into markets outside their home country. A well-defined international strategy can allow a business to achieve its objectives even when domestic demand saturates or decreases. When considering expansion into a foreign market, companies must be flexible enough to meet the needs of different cultural groups. For example, McDonald’s had to change its menu when it entered the Indian market, replacing beef cutlets with vegetarian versions of the burger to respect local values. This flexibility allows a company to penetrate a foreign market quickly and efficiently, minimizing costs and increasing its chances of success. Companies that enter the global market often discover their products have universal appeal. This is especially true for products or services that have a fundamental need and consumption, such as food. However, the global marketplace is not without its pitfalls. Companies that do not develop clear, consistent international strategies are at risk of losing ground to competitors that do. The size of the global market makes it a very attractive opportunity for those who want to grow their companies. Its massive size can make it easier for businesses to gain a competitive advantage over local rivals, increase their profitability and reduce the amount of resources needed to develop and maintain their products. Whether it is through a merger or acquisition, a global expansion can greatly accelerate a business’s growth and increase its profit margins. While it is important for a business to develop a competitive advantage in the global marketplace, the benefits of entering a foreign market go beyond increased revenue and increased profit margins. In addition, the ability to expand into a new market can help a business thrive during economic uncertainty, diversify its workforce and harness innovative solutions that it otherwise might not have been able to afford to develop. This is particularly true for those who can exploit the economies of scale that a global marketplace offers. By lowering the cost of production and reducing shipping expenses, it is possible for companies to offer lower prices and higher quality products. The world market also gives companies the opportunity to get feedback worldwide from consumers, which can speed up the process of improving their products. This can be a significant advantage over local markets, where feedback is often slow to reach the company.

Why Should You Get Into Politics?

Politics is the activity of people pursuing power and influence over other people. It involves a constant struggle to win support from others for ideas and actions that you believe in. Politics can be as simple as two friends disagreeing over what to eat for lunch, or as complex as the interaction between nations and continents over climate change, global poverty, and human rights. It is important to understand politics because it determines the way we live and what kind of world we will inherit from our ancestors. Governments play a central role in the political arena, and politicians are elected (at least in democracies) to govern their nation and its people. They decide what public services to provide, the laws they should enforce and the security arrangements they should ensure. They also negotiate with other governments over international issues, ranging from trade to war. Politics can be a fascinating subject to study, and there are many career opportunities available for those interested in it. However, many students will not be introduced to the subject until mid-secondary school, and even then it can be a challenging and time consuming subject to master. In addition, the nature of politics means that you will often find yourself arguing with other people about their opinions, which can be difficult and frustrating. As a result, some people choose not to get involved in politics, and many more regret it once they do. There are some obvious benefits to being political, such as the fame and celebrity status that can come with it, as well as wealth from donations and campaign contributions. More importantly, it is a chance to make a difference in the lives of your fellow citizens, and to influence the course of history. Another reason to get involved in politics is the feeling of fulfilment that comes with performing a civic duty, as well as the expressive or solidary rewards of joining up with like-minded people in support of a particular candidate or cause. Furthermore, there is growing evidence that a high level of political participation can have a positive effect on social capital and community cohesion. A third reason to get involved in politics is the sense of achievement that comes with winning a vote or election, particularly when your views are represented in law and policy. It can be a very satisfying experience, and the sense of accomplishment that comes with a victory is especially strong when you know how much you have worked for it. Of course, there are many more reasons to become politically active. You may just want to be informed about what is going on in the world, or you may feel a sense of obligation to participate because of your citizenship. Whatever the case, it is important to be aware of the forces that drive politics, so you can make the best decisions for yourself and your family. The world is a dangerous place, and politics is the tool we use to manage it.

The Process of Democracy

Democratisation is an idea that has become increasingly embraced across the world as states seek to lay claim to legitimacy as democratic societies. The number of countries that qualify as democracies today has multiplied five times since the end of World War II, and it now includes almost all states. However, meaningful explanations of the processes that bring about democratisation are not easy to come by. One problem is that there is no consensus as to what democracy actually means – whether it is a specific political system, a process of voting, or a set of social and cultural values. A second problem is that the process of democratisation is rarely linear or free from hazards. It is often a painful and slow process that has been marked by numerous crises. Moreover, the experience of ‘old’ democracies suggests that sustainable pro-democratic changes can only be initiated and implemented when there are sufficient economic, social and cultural conditions in place. Some scholars stress the importance of creating favourable structural conditions for democratisation, and argue that the emergence of a well-educated middle class that is capable of asserting its interests in governance issues is essential. This middle class will be more likely to support democracy if it is able to enjoy economic prosperity, which in turn is dependent on the development of the requisite institutions. However, this approach is overly simplistic and fails to account for the fact that in some cases, even when economic conditions are ripe for democratization, such as during Germany in the 1930s or Chile in the 1970s, the middle classes supported authoritarian regimes. Other scholars, such as Guillermo O’Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, have argued that such structural causes are not the whole story and that there are also elite choices that determine if a society is prone to democratization or not. They suggest that the success of a country in overcoming long-standing intractable conflict (such as South Africa after its apartheid regime) is largely due to the willingness of elites in that society to embrace democracy. Finally, some have argued that democratisation can be imposed from outside if conditions are favourable, such as with Japan and Germany in the immediate post-World War II period. Others have cautioned that this view is oversimplified and does not take into account the fact that outside imposition depends on a great deal of local goodwill. The debate between the ‘favourable conditions’ and the ‘elite-choice’ approaches to explaining democratisation is unlikely to be resolved anytime soon. Both approaches have strengths and weaknesses, and it is difficult to produce a model that fully accounts for all the various factors that matter. Nevertheless, it is important that citizens of the developed world continue to promote policies that support democratisation and encourage democratic movements in other parts of the world. This requires building grass-roots support for what former British Foreign Minister Robin Cook called an ‘ethical foreign policy’. It also involves getting involved in civil-society organisations that are working to build democracy at home.