Author: Newculturalfrontiers

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Democratisation

Democratisation is the process by which societies move from authoritarianism to democratic political regimes. It is a complex and multifaceted process which is influenced by many factors, including social, economic and international influences. It has never been a linear, smooth or free from hazards process, and there are examples of both successful and failed democratisation. A number of theories on Democratisation have been put forward, most of which are built around the idea that societies need to go through various stages before achieving a fully functional democracy. These include civil society (such as media and non-governmental organisations), political party systems, elections that are free and fair, government accountability, and the rule of law which ensures that all citizens are treated fairly and have access to justice. These processes can be difficult to achieve in many places because of entrenched traditions and ideologies, which often oppose any form of Democratisation. For example, the Shah of Iran (Mohammed Reza) who embraced civil society and political reforms in an attempt to make his country more pro-western ran into strong opposition from the Shi’ite Islamic establishment of Iranian society. Some Democratisation theories believe that democracy can be imposed from outside, and this is often argued to have been the case with the rapid democratisation of Japan and Germany in the aftermath of World War II. However, such cases are not typical and the success of foreign democratisation depends on the subjected societies being willing to accept and work with the new system and for the imposition of democracy to be accompanied by a process of consolidation. This involves the gradual maturing of democratic institutions and societal norms, which allows citizens to understand and accept the new democratic political system as not threatening but complementing their traditional cultural identity and beliefs in what constitutes the ‘common good’. Without this level of social maturity, any democratisation process that is imposed from outside will likely produce only a manipulable procedural democracy at best. There are a number of challenges that can arise during Democratisation, which can hinder the process and sometimes cause it to reverse, such as corruption, political instability, polarisation and economic inequalities. The most common challenge, however, is that the democratisation process can be hindered by external influence from neighbouring authoritarian states or global economic crises. Developing an understanding of these different theories can help you to cultivate a broad perspective on Democratisation and to understand why some nations have successfully transitioned to democracy whilst others haven’t. It can also help you prepare for getting involved in democratic dialogue and decision-making. Read our Democratisation articles for more insights into the complexities of this dynamic process, or explore thousands of Study Sets from experts on Coursera.

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A Guide to Cultural History

The term culture refers to the totality of a people’s ways of life, thought and expression. It also includes a specific set of values and beliefs. It is the opposite of instinctual behavior, which is largely determined by a biological reaction to an environment. In the human species, however, man can consciously modify the behavior he is born with by creating a cultural environment that will shape his own behavior and provide him with an overtly meaningful identity. For sociologist Georg Simmel, culture is the social system that creates and gives meaning to the world of human activities, as well as the corresponding material objects of life. The idea is that the evolution of man away from a primitive animal state, through the development of a culture of a society that is more than the mere sum of the individual experiences and pleasures of its members, results in the formation of civilizations – societies that are able to manage the affairs of their communities and of their individuals. It is a difficult task to find common ground between the 19th-century conception of cultural history, with its emphasis on the individual’s psychological origins and his progress toward civilization, and contemporary interpretations of this concept of historical research. Historians in the Annales school of intellectual history, for example, experimented with broader definitions of culture by becoming interested in such factors as the impact of consumption on man and by incorporating methodologies from sociology and anthropology into their work. The work of Huizinga, in particular, represented a bridge between old and new conceptions of cultural history. Although the various approaches to the study of culture are based on different assumptions and employ different methods, all seek to recognize the process by which the inventive capacity of individuals or societies is invested with meanings that render such inventions intelligible to them. This acknowledgement applies as much to artistic and intellectual creations as to the ordinary practices by which a society lives and thinks. The website offers a collection of ebooks on the topic of cultural history from the beginning of written history to the present day. The site is a useful resource for educators and students who wish to explore the subject of culture in its many dimensions. The site is easy to navigate and presents the subject in an approachable way. The site is free to use and does not require registration. It is an impressive and exhaustive list of books covering almost every conceivable aspect of world cultures. The ebooks are well researched and curated, providing quality content that is difficult to find elsewhere. The website provides a great tool for educators and researchers, with the ability to search by time period or theme. The site is not intended for intensive research, but more for general reading and teaching. It is an excellent resource to help introduce the concept of world culture to the classroom. The collection of resources is continually expanding and the site’s wiki format allows for further expansion and editing in the future.

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How Do Citizens Evaluate Democracy?

Democracy – literally, rule by the people – is one of the most desirable political systems in the world. But despite its etymological roots, democracy is a highly complex concept that includes many diverse institutions and functions, some of which are difficult to measure and quantify. Moreover, the degree to which people perceive their governments as democratic depends on the individual’s subjective perception and experience. Therefore, the evaluation of a government’s democratic qualities is highly variable across individuals and countries. Consequently, it is challenging to find a single measure that adequately captures a global view of how well a democracy functions. Nevertheless, several approaches have been developed that aim to find an aggregate measure of citizens’ evaluations of democracy. These approaches vary in their approach and how they combine and weight the various indicators to create an overall score. The definitions of democracy and its underlying attributes are contested, but they typically encompass representation of the people in policy making, fundamental rights, checks on government, impartial administration, and a wide range of participation opportunities. They are also typically defined in terms of how well these characteristics are fulfilled in a specific context, such as how elections are conducted and whether they include competing parties. Since the start of the 21st century, there has been a growing interest in measuring democracy and its different aspects. Currently, most measures of democracy rely on individual indicators to gauge a finite number of characteristics. This article builds on previous work by investigating the possibility of combining multiple indicators in order to assess how citizens evaluate democracy. Specifically, the authors use the special module in the sixth round of the European Social Survey (ESS) and apply Bayesian factor analysis with country random effects to identify the extent to which multiple indicators form an underlying trait that describes citizens’ evaluations of democracy. In order to assess the underlying trait, the authors use a method known as Bayesian latent variable modeling with an iteratively selected list of 116 individual political indicators from 13 sources. The resulting underlying trait explains 18% of the variance in citizens’ evaluations of democracy at the country level. Considering that the ESS consists of over 30 thousand individuals in 36 countries, this indicates that a substantial amount of variation in citizens’ evaluations of democracy can be explained by the underlying traits. Several of the individual political indicators used in this study have been extensively described in the literature (Morlino, Reference Morlino2011; Buhlmann, Reference Buhlmann, Merkel, Muller and Wessels2012; Munck and Verkuilen, Reference Munck and Verkuilen2002). To examine how these different political attributes are related to each other, they construct a matrix that contains the core measurement, aggregating and weighting rules of each of these underlying traits. This matrix is complemented by three additional dimensions that reflect specific features of a democracy, such as whether those in power explain their choices to voters and the media provide them with reliable information. These dimensions show lower slopes but nonetheless contribute to the underlying trait.

Global Market Definition

Global Market definition – A global market is the global marketplace, which refers to the world’s stock markets, commodities, currencies and other trading activities. It is a network of markets around the world that trade at different timings throughout the day. The most important global markets include the US, Europe and Asia. Going global is an opportunity for businesses to increase sales revenue by tapping into new markets with different demographics, tastes and purchasing power. However, expanding into international markets can be complex and requires careful planning to ensure that the business stays competitive in foreign markets and avoids cultural, legal and regulatory issues. The key to a successful global marketing strategy is thorough market research to understand the potential customers and their behavior, spending habits and purchasing patterns. This will help the company develop marketing campaigns that resonate with local audiences and comply with regional regulations. The research should also factor in cultural norms and economic conditions. A global marketing strategy also allows companies to achieve economies of scale, which means they can lower their per-unit production costs by producing goods or services in larger quantities. This is because the fixed costs of a company are spread out over a greater quantity of products, and production processes can be made more efficient through bulk purchases or centralized facilities. The lowered production costs can be passed on to consumers, which can boost profit margins. Entering the global marketplace can also provide access to a wider talent pool. This can help the business find qualified employees and establish stronger relationships with suppliers, partners and financial institutions. A more diverse workforce can also improve creativity and encourage collaboration. It can also help a company adapt its technology, equipment and manufacturing processes to better compete in international markets. Taking advantage of the global market also helps a business diversify its product line and expand into different segments of the economy. For example, a company that produces natural gas turbines can enter markets in which there is a growing demand for renewable energy. The same can be done for consumer electronics, automotive parts and other industrial components. This helps businesses reduce their dependency on a single market, mitigate risk and maintain a healthy balance sheet.

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What Is Politics?

Politics is the organized way that people in groups such as tribes or cities or countries make planned decisions. The term is often used to refer to the responsibilities and decisions of government, but it can also include activities within non-governmental organizations such as private corporations or social movements. People who study politics in universities are known as political scientists, and the field of study is sometimes called public affairs, government, or political studies. Some have narrowly defined politics as the exercise of power – that is, when people try to assert their interests over those of other individuals or groups. The definition is problematic, however, because it implies that people with different interests cannot co-exist in a community or country without conflict. This view of politics is not supported by the facts, and it is not consistent with the principle that humans should have freedom to pursue their interests as they see fit. Many political decisions have far-reaching effects on societies, and they often have long-term consequences that can be difficult to reverse. For example, changes in agricultural technology or the discovery of new natural resources may affect how a country can feed itself for centuries to come. The study of politics is therefore very important for people who care about the future of humankind. Another way to define politics is to view it as a process through which a group or individual gets what it wants in a society. This includes both material goods, such as income or property, and societal benefits, such as access to certain privileges or rights. In this view, politics includes not only governmental decisions such as laws and budgets but also social, economic, cultural, and religious decisions. The practice of politics is a complex, ever-changing endeavor. Decisions are made by a variety of people in a wide range of situations, from local council meetings to presidential inaugurations. Political scientists are interested in how these decisions are made and why certain decisions are made rather than others. They also examine the impact of historical developments on contemporary decision making. People who participate in politics are often motivated by the need to make decisions that will benefit themselves, their families, and their communities. They are also concerned with the fairness and integrity of the political system. They are usually divided into political parties, which organize people with similar views and interests. Political parties often make promises to their supporters in order to get their support, but they can often fail to deliver on these promises. This can lead to corruption and other negative effects on a society. This is a key reason why many experts believe that politicians should not be involved in business or industry. This is to prevent conflicts of interest and reduce the potential for corrupt decision making. It is also important for politicians to take into account the needs of people who are less well off than they are. This is a challenging task, given that most politicians are elected by people who are more financially secure than the majority of their constituents.

Conflict Resolution and the Concept of Democratisation

A democracy is a government where citizens have rights, freedoms and responsibilities to the state as well as equal opportunities and access to services. Democratisation is the process of making such a political system more established and more widely accepted. It is one of the most important concepts and trends in modern politics, and it has implications for conflict-resolution theory and practice. There are a variety of theories about the causes and processes of democratization. One view is that it occurs in a process of slow incremental development, exemplified by Great Britain’s gradual evolution from absolute monarchy to a democracy. Another is that democratization occurs when economic development creates an educated middle class with interests in governing issues and the capacity to make demands of a repressive government, which eventually forces it to give way. Still others see a more dynamic, revolutionary process, as when revolutionaries topple an autocratic regime and install themselves in power. The question of what makes democracy more or less likely to develop has generated considerable debate among democratic theorists, and even more discussion about the conditions for a society’s readiness to become democratic. The most important factor, according to many scholars, is the existence of a cultural environment that is supportive of democratic institutions and values. These include tolerance of diversity, a belief in the equality of all citizens and that all are capable of participating effectively in public life, a commitment to civil liberties and human rights, and a sense of mutual obligation and reciprocity among citizens. The term for this collection of attitudes and values is often referred to as a ‘civic culture’. While there is disagreement among scholars about the nature of civic culture, there is a consensus that a democracy cannot succeed without it. Moreover, the more democratic a society is, the more likely it will be to sustain itself, and the less likely it will be to collapse or revert to authoritarian rule. There is also a consensus that democracy tends to spread in waves, with most countries becoming democratic over time and space. The first wave, lasting from the expansion of suffrage in the late 19th century to World War I, was succeeded by the second wave in the postwar period and by a series of reverse waves in Asia and Latin America. It is also widely agreed that democracy cannot thrive unless it has an adequate supply of resources. This is a fundamental reason behind the emphasis on economic development as a necessary precondition for democratization, and it has led some academics to propose models of transition from authoritarian regimes that do not rely on any particular set of structural ‘big causes’. These scholars, such as Dankwart A. Rustow in his book Democracy and Development (1990) and Guillermo O’Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter in their classic Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (1986), have criticized the idea of large-scale ‘structural’ causes of democratization as being simplistic.